Introduction
One of the most important developments in management during the 1970’s has been the widespread application广泛应用 of project teams to a variety of ***plex tasks. Project managers quickly learn the critical significance批判意义 of the effective project team高效的项目团队 and the role of team building activities in facilitating project促进项目 management performance. In fact, the difference between su***essful and unsu***essful performance can often be linked to the effectiveness of the project team. We expect that the 1980’s will surely witness an increased emphasis on team building.
Varney2 notes that the importance of developing effective teams ***es from three major forces. First, there are more specialists/experts within organizations whose talents need to be focused and integrated into a larger task. Second, more organizational members want to be***e increasingly involved in their total work environment. Third, the benefits of people working together can result in important synergy and creativity. Increasing task ***plexity and ***plicated environmental interfaces also encourage the development of effective teams. Effective team building also leads to higher levels of job satisfaction.
20世纪70年代，管理学最重要的发展之一是将项目小组广泛应用于各种复杂的任务。项目经理很快了解到高效项目团队的重要意义，以及团队建设活动在促进项目管理绩效中的作用。事实上，成功和不成功的表现之间的差异往往可以联系到项目团队的有效性。我们预计，20世纪80年代肯定会更加重视团队建设。
Varney2指出，发展高效团队的重要性来自三个主要力量。首先，组织内有更多的专家，他们的才能需要集中并整合到更大的任务中。第二，更多的组织成员希望越来越多地参与到他们的整体工作环境中。第三，人们一起工作的好处可以产生重要的协同作用和创造力。不断增加的任务复杂性和复杂的环境界面也鼓励了高效团队的发展。有效的团队建设也会带来更高的工作满意度。
Team Building Defined
Team building is the process of taking a collection of individuals with different needs, backgrounds and expertise and transforming them by various methods into an integrated完整的, effective work unit. In this transformation process, the goals and energies of individual contributors merge and support the objectives of the team.
The concept of team building be***es critically important as bureaucratic 官僚主义的hierarchies层次结构 decline and horizontally-oriented水平定向的 teams and work units be***e increasingly important. In most cases, team building involves relationships among peers with a wide diversity of expertise.
团队建设是将一群具有不同需求、背景和专长的个人通过各种方法转化为一个完整的、有效的工作单位的过程。在这个转换过程中，个人贡献者的目标和能量合并并支持团队的目标。
团队建设的概念变得至关重要，因为官僚等级制度的下降和水平导向的团队和工作单位变得越来越重要。在大多数情况下，团队建设涉及具有广泛专业知识的同事之间的关系。
Major Barriers To Project Team Development
In a recent exploratory field probe探索性实地考察 with over 90 project leaders, we attempted to identify some of the major barriers project leaders experience in building effective teams. The project leaders represented several types of organizations and technologies. Most of the respondents to our probe, however, were in research and development, construction, and engineering projects and ***puter information system implementors实施. A more ***prehensive study is planned to develop detailed data on team-building barriers. Our purpose here is to illustrate说明 some of the most ***mon major barriers to team-building efforts and suggest alternative approaches for handling these problems.
在最近与90多名项目负责人进行的探索性实地考察中，我们试图找出项目领导者在建立有效团队方面遇到的一些主要障碍。项目负责人代表了几种类型的组织和技术。然而，我们调查的大多数受访者是在研究和开发，建筑，工程项目和计算机信息系统的实施者。计划进行一项更全面的研究，以开发关于团队建设障碍的详细数据。我们在这里的目的是说明一些最常见的主要障碍，团队建设的努力，并建议处理这些问题的替代方法。
Differing Outlooks, Priorities, Interests and Judgments of Team Members 团队成员的不同观点、优先级、兴趣和判断
A major barrier is that team members often have different professional objectives and interests. Yet project ac***plishment often requires team members to place “what’s good for the project” above their own interest areas. When team members are reluctant不情愿的 to do so, severe problems develop in building an effective team. This problem is ***pounded when the team relies on support groups which have different interests and priorities.
一个主要的障碍是团队成员通常有不同的专业目标和兴趣。然而，项目的完成通常需要团队成员将“什么对项目有好处”置于他们自己的兴趣领域之上。当团队成员不愿意这样做时，在建立一个有效的团队方面就会出现严重的问题。当团队依赖于有不同兴趣和优先事项的支持团体时，这个问题就复杂化了。
Role Conflicts
Team development efforts also can be thwarted受挫 when role conflicts exist among the team members. Role conflicts are most likely to o***ur when there is ambiguity歧义 about who does what within the project team and between the team and external team外部团队 support groups. Overlapping and ambiguous role responsibilities are also major contributors贡献者 to role conflicts.
当团队成员之间存在角色冲突时，团队开发工作也会受到阻碍。当项目团队内部以及团队和外部团队支持小组之间对谁做什么不明确时，最有可能发生角色冲突。角色职责的重叠和模糊也是导致角色冲突的主要原因。
Project Objectives/Out***es Not Clear 项目目标/成果不明确
One of the most frequently cited team-building barriers is unclear project objectives. As one project leader remarked:
How can you implement a team building program if you’re not clear on what the objectives for the project really are? Let’s face it, many teams are muddling along得过且过 on fifty percent of their potential because no one is really clear on where the project should be headed.
In R&D and ***puter systems projects, objectives may be formulated by managers or clients external to the team. Moreover, if objectives are not explicit, it be***es difficult, if not impossible, to clearly define roles and responsibilities.
最常被提及的团队建设障碍之一是项目目标不明确。正如一位项目负责人所说：
如果你不清楚项目的真正目标是什么，你如何实施团队建设计划？让我们面对现实吧，许多团队在50%的潜力上得过且过，因为没有人真正清楚项目应该朝哪个方向发展。
在研发和计算机系统项目中，目标可能由团队外部的经理或客户制定。此外，如果目标不明确，就很难、甚至不可能明确界定作用和责任。
Dynamic Project Environments 动态项目环境
A characteristic of many projects is that the environments in which they operate are in a continual state of change. For example, senior management may keep changing the project scope, objectives, and resource base. In other situations, regulatory changes or client demands for new and different specifications can drastically affect the internal operations of a project team. Disruptive environments are frequently a characteristic of project teams. Finally, the rate by which a team “builds up” to its full manpower base may present team-building barriers.
许多项目的一个特点是，它们运行的环境处于不断变化的状态。例如，高级管理层可能会不断改变项目范围、目标和资源基础。在其他情况下，法规变更或客户对新的和不同的规范的需求可能会极大地影响项目团队的内部操作。破坏性环境常常是项目团队的一个特征。最后，团队“建立”到其全部人力基础的速度可能会成为团队建设的障碍。
***petition Over Team Leadership 团队领导力的竞争
Initially we were somewhat surprised at the number of project leaders who mentioned ***petition for a leadership position. They indicated that this barrier was most likely to o***ur in the early phases of a project of if the project ran into severe problems and the quality of team leadership came into question. Obviously, both cases of leadership challenge can result in barriers (if only temporary) to team building. Frequently, these challenges were covert challenges to the project leader’s ability.
最初，我们对提到竞争领导职位的项目负责人的数量感到有些惊讶。他们指出，这一障碍最有可能发生在项目的早期阶段，如果项目遇到严重的问题，团队领导的质量出现问题。显然，这两种情况下的领导力挑战可能会导致障碍（即使只是暂时的），以团队建设。这些挑战往往是对项目负责人能力的隐性挑战。
Lack of Team Definition and Structure 缺乏团队定义和结构
One of the most frequently mentioned barriers of all was the lack of a clearly delineated team to undertake a project. We found this barrier to be most likely to o***ur among ***puter system managers and R&D project leaders. A ***mon pattern was that a work unit (not a project team) would be charged with a task but no one leader or team member was clearly delegated委派 the responsibility. As a consequence, some work-unit members would be working on the project but not be entirely clear on the extent of their responsibilities.
In other cases, a poorly defined team will result when a project is supported by several departments but no one person in these departments is designated as a team member and departmental coordinator. Such an approach results in the project leader being unclear on whom to count for support. This often o***urs, for example, when a ***puter systems project leader must rely on a “programming pool.”
最常提到的障碍之一是缺乏一个明确划分的团队来承担一个项目。我们发现，这种障碍是最有可能发生在计算机系统管理人员和研发项目负责人。一个常见的模式是，一个工作单位（而不是一个项目团队）将负责一项任务，但没有一个领导者或团队成员被明确地授予责任。因此，一些工作单位的成员将为项目工作，但不完全清楚他们的责任范围。
在其他情况下，如果一个项目得到几个部门的支持，但这些部门中没有一个人被指定为团队成员和部门协调员，则会产生定义不清的团队。这种方法导致项目负责人不清楚该指望谁的支持。这经常发生，例如，当一个计算机系统项目负责人必须依赖于一个“编程池”。
Team Personnel Selection 团队人员选拔
Another barrier was centered on how team members were selected. In some cases, project personnel are assigned to the teams by functional managers, and the project manager has little or no input into the selection process. This, of course, can impede team development efforts, especially when the project leader is given available personnel versus the best, hand-picked team members. The assignment of “available personnel” can result in several problems, e.g., low motivation levels, discontentment and un***mitted team members. We have found, as a rule, that the more power the project leader has over the selection of his/her team members, the more likely team-building efforts will be fruitful.
另一个障碍集中在如何选择团队成员上。在某些情况下，项目人员是由职能经理分配到各个小组的，项目经理在选择过程中很少或根本没有投入。当然，这会阻碍团队开发的努力，特别是当项目负责人得到的是可用的人员，而不是最好的、精心挑选的团队成员时。指派“可用人员”可能会导致几个问题，例如，低水平的积极性，不满意和不忠诚的团队成员。我们发现，作为一项规则，项目负责人对他/她的团队成员的选择有更多的权力，更有可能的团队建设的努力将是富有成效的。
Credibility of the Project Leader 项目负责人的可信度
Team-building efforts were hampered受阻 when the project leader suffered from poor credibility within the team or from important managers external to the team. In such cases, team members are often reluctant to make a ***mitment to the project or the leader. Credibility problems可信性问题 may ***e from poor managerial skills管理能力差, poor technical judgments糟糕的技术判断 or lack of experience relevant to the project.
当项目领导者在团队内部或团队外部的重要管理者中信誉不佳时，团队建设的努力就会受到阻碍。在这种情况下，团队成员往往不愿意对项目或领导做出承诺。可信度问题可能来自于糟糕的管理技能、糟糕的技术判断或缺乏与项目相关的经验。
Lack of Team Member ***mitment 缺乏团队成员的承诺
Lack of ***mitment to the project was cited as one of the most ***mon barriers. Lack of ***mitment can ***e from several sources, such as; the team members’ professional interests lie elsewhere; the feeling of insecurity being associated with projects; the unclear nature of the rewards which may be forth***ing upon su***essful project ***pletion; and from intense interpersonal conflicts within the team. One project leader made this ***ment to us:
Let’s face it—some personnel are not suited for project work. Some can’t stand the ambiguous, fluid nature of projects while others simply rather work alone or with a small group of colleagues they’ve developed close working relationships with over a period of years.
As we suggested earlier, the nature of many projects requires the disruption of valued, existing routine work relationships of team members. As a consequence, they may not feel ***mitted to the project.
Other issues which can result in un***mitted team members are suspicious attitudes which may exist between the project leader and a functional support manager or between two team members from two warring functional departments. Finally, we found that low ***mitment levels were likely to o***ur when a “star” on a team “demanded” too much deference from other team members or too much pampering from the team leader. One team leader put it this way:
A lot of teams have their prima donnas and you learn to live and function with them. They can be critical to overall project su***ess. But some stars can be so demanding on everyone that they’ll kill the team’s motivation.
对项目缺乏承诺被认为是最常见的障碍之一。缺乏承诺可能有几个来源，如：团队成员的专业兴趣在别处；与项目相关的不安全感；在成功完成项目后可能即将到来的奖励的不明确性；以及团队内部激烈的人际冲突。一位项目负责人对我们发表了这样的评论：
让我们面对现实吧–有些人不适合做项目工作。一些人无法忍受项目的模糊性和流动性，而另一些人则宁愿独自工作，或者与一小群多年来建立了密切工作关系的同事一起工作。
正如我们前面提到的，许多项目的本质要求破坏团队成员中有价值的、现有的常规工作关系。因此，他们可能觉得对项目没有责任感。
其他可能导致团队成员不忠诚的问题是怀疑态度，这可能存在于项目领导人和职能支持经理之间，或者存在于两个敌对职能部门的两个团队成员之间。最后，我们发现，当团队中的“明星”“要求”其他团队成员给予太多的尊重，或者对团队领导给予太多的纵容时，低承诺水平很可能发生。一位团队领导人是这样说的：
很多团队都有他们的首席女主角，你要学会与他们一起生活和工作。它们可能对整个项目的成功至关重要。但有些球星会对每个人要求太高，这会扼杀球队的积极性。
***munication Problems 沟通问题
Not surprisingly, we found that poor ***munication was a major enemy to effective team development efforts. Poor ***munication existed on three major levels. First, several mentioned the problems of ***munication among team members and between the project leader and the team members. Often the problem was caused by team members simply not keeping others informed on key project developments. Yet the “whys” of poor ***munication patterns were far more difficult to determine. It can result from low motivation levels, poor morale, or carelessness. We also discovered that poor ***munication patterns between the team and support groups could result in severe team-building problems, as did poor ***munication with the client. Poor ***munication practices often led to unclear objectives and poor project control, coordination, and work flow.
毫不奇怪，我们发现糟糕的沟通是有效团队开发工作的主要敌人。沟通不良存在于三个主要层面。首先，几位提到了团队成员之间以及项目负责人与团队成员之间沟通的问题。这个问题通常是由于团队成员没有让其他人了解关键项目的进展而引起的。然而，糟糕的沟通模式的“原因”要难得多。它可能是由低动机水平、士气低落或粗心造成的。我们还发现，团队和支持团体之间的沟通模式差，可能会导致严重的团队建设问题，因为没有与客户端的沟通差。糟糕的沟通实践经常导致不明确的目标和糟糕的项目控制、协调和工作流程。
Lack of Senior Management Support 缺乏高级管理层的支持
Many of the project leaders indicated that senior management support and ***mitment often were unclear and subject to waxing and waning over the project life cycle. This behavior can result in an uneasy feeling among team members and lead to low levels of enthusiasm and project ***mitment. Two other ***mon problems frequently noted were that senior management would not help set the right environment for the project team at the outset, nor would they give the team timely feedback on their performance and activities during the life of the project.
许多项目负责人指出，高级管理层的支持和承诺往往不明确，在项目生命期内时好时坏。这种行为可能会导致团队成员之间的不安感，并导致低水平的热情和项目承诺。经常注意到的另外两个常见问题是，高级管理人员不会在一开始就帮助为项目小组创造适当的环境，也不会在项目期间就其业绩和活动向小组提供及时的反馈。
Over***ing Team Building Barriers 克服团队建设的障碍
For each of the major team-building barriers identified, several suggestions can be advanced for either minimizing or eliminating them. Table 1 lists the barriers and the suggested handling approaches.
对于每一个确定的主要团队建设障碍，可以提出几个建议来最小化或消除它们。表1列出了障碍和建议的处理方法。
Suggestions For Handling The Newly Formed Team 对新组建团队的处理建议
A major problem faced by many project leaders is managing the anxiety which usually develops when a new team is first formed. This anxiety experienced by team members is normal and predictable. It is a barrier, however, to getting the team quickly focused on the task. In other words, if team members are suffering from anxiety, their attention consciously or subconsciously will be focused on the resolution of their own anxieties rather than on the needs of the project.
This anxiety may ***e from several sources. For example, if the team members have never worked with the project leader, the team members may be concerned about his leadership style and its effect on them. In a different vein, some team members may be concerned about the nature of the project and whether it will match their professional interests and capabilities. Other team members may be concerned whether the project will be helpful or a hindrance to their career aspirations. Our experience indicates that team members can also be highly anxious about lifestyle/work-style disruptions which the project may bring. As one project manager recently remarked to one of the authors:
许多项目负责人面临的一个主要问题是管理焦虑，这种焦虑通常是在新团队刚成立时产生的。团队成员所经历的这种焦虑是正常的，也是可以预见的。然而，这是让团队迅速专注于任务的一个障碍。换句话说，如果团队成员饱受焦虑之苦，他们的注意力会有意识或无意识地集中在解决自己的焦虑上，而不是项目的需求上。
这种焦虑可能来自几个方面。例如，如果团队成员从未与项目负责人一起工作过，团队成员可能会关心他的领导风格及其对他们的影响。在不同的脉络中，一些团队成员可能会关心项目的性质，以及项目是否与他们的专业兴趣和能力相匹配。其他团队成员可能会担心这个项目是否对他们的职业抱负有帮助或阻碍。我们的经验表明，团队成员也可能对项目可能带来的生活方式/工作方式的破坏感到高度焦虑。正如一位项目经理最近对其中一位作者所说：
Moving a team member’s desk from one side of the room to the other can sometimes be just about as traumatic as moving someone from Chicago to Manila to build a power plant.
As the quote suggests, seemingly minor changes can result in unanticipated anxiety among team members.
Another ***mon concern among newly formed teams is whether or not there will be an equitable distribution of the work load among team members and whether each member is capable of pulling his/her weight. In some newly formed teams, team members not only might have to do their own work but they also must train other team members. Within reason this is bearable, necessary and often expected. However, when it be***es excessive, anxiety increases and morale can fall.
将团队成员的办公桌从房间的一边移到另一边，有时就像将某人从芝加哥移到马尼拉去建造一座发电厂一样令人痛苦。
正如这句话所表明的那样，看似微小的变化可能会导致团队成员中出现意料之外的焦虑。
在新成立的团队中，另一个普遍关注的问题是是否会在团队成员中公平分配工作量，以及每个成员是否能够发挥自己的作用。在一些新成立的团队中，团队成员可能不仅要做自己的工作，而且还必须培训其他团队成员。在合理的范围内，这是可以忍受的，必要的，也是经常被期待的。然而，当它变得过度，焦虑增加，士气可能下降。
We’ve found that certain steps taken early in the life of a team can pay handsome dividends in terms of handling the above problems. First, we re***mend that the project leader at the start of the project talk with each team member on a one-to-one basis about the following:
我们发现，在团队生命的早期采取的某些步骤可以在处理上述问题方面获得可观的回报。首先，我们建议项目负责人在项目开始时与每一个团队成员进行一对一的交流，讨论以下内容：
- What the objectives are for the project.
- Who will be involved and why.
- Importance of the project to the overall organization or work unit.
- Why the team member was selected and assigned to the project. What role will he/she perform.
- What rewards might be forth***ing if the project is su***essfully ***pleted.
- A candid appraisal of the problems and constraints which are likely to be encountered.
- What are the rules-of-the-road which will be followed in managing the project, e.g., regular status review meetings.
- What suggestions does the team member have for achieving su***ess.
- What are the professional interests of the team member.
- The challenge the project is likely to provide to individual members and the entire team.
- Why the team concept is so important to project management su***ess and how it should work.
- 项目的目标是什么。
- 谁将参与，以及为什么参与。
- 项目对整个组织或工作单位的重要性。
- 团队成员被选中并分配到项目中的原因。他/她将扮演什么角色。
- 如果项目成功完成，将会得到什么样的回报？
- 坦率地评估可能遇到的问题和限制。
- 在管理项目时遵循的路经是什么，例如，定期的状态审查会议。
- 该团队成员对取得成功有什么建议？
- 团队成员的职业兴趣是什么？
- 项目可能给个别成员和整个团队带来的挑战。
- 为什么团队的概念对项目管理的成功如此重要，以及它应该如何工作。
A frank, open discussion with each team member on the above is likely to reduce his/her initial anxiety. As a consequence, the team member is likely to be more attentive to the needs of the project. Of course, the opposite reaction is possible, too. A frank discussion, for example, may actually increase a team member’s anxiety level. Often, however, the source of the anxiety can be identified and dealt with in a timely manner.
The importance of dealing with these anxieties and helping team members feel that they are an integral part of the team can result in rich dividends. First, as noted in Figure 1, the more effective the project leader is in developing a feeling of team membership, the higher the quality of information which is likely to be contributed by team members. Team members will not be reluctant to openly share their ideas and approaches. By contrast, when a team member does not feel like part of the team and does not believe he/she can trust others in team deliberations, information will not be shared willingly or openly. One project leader emphasized this point as follows:
与每个团队成员就上述问题进行坦率、公开的讨论，很可能会减少他/她最初的焦虑。因此，团队成员可能会更加关注项目的需求。当然，相反的反应也是可能的。例如，坦率的讨论实际上可能会增加团队成员的焦虑程度。然而，焦虑的根源往往是可以被及时识别和处理的。
处理这些焦虑的重要性，帮助团队成员感觉到他们是团队不可或缺的一部分，可以带来丰厚的回报。首先，如图1所示，项目领导者在培养团队成员的感觉方面越有效，团队成员可能贡献的信息质量就越高。团队成员不会不愿意公开分享他们的想法和方法。相比之下，当一个团队成员不觉得自己是团队的一部分，不相信他/她可以在团队审议中信任其他人时，信息将不会自愿或公开地共享。一位项目负责人强调这一点如下：
There’s nothing worse than being on a team when no one trusts anyone else… .Such situations lead to gamesmanship and a lot of watching what you say because you don’t want your own words to bounce back in your face…
Second, the greater the feeling of team membership and the better the information exchange (flow) among team members, the more likely the team will be able to develop effective decision-making processes. The reason is that the team members feel ***mitted to the project and they feel free to share their information and develop effective problem-solving approaches. Third, the team is likely to develop more effective project control procedures. Project control procedures can be divided into two basic areas. The first is the quantitative control procedures traditionally used to monitor project performance, e.g., PERT/CPM, ***working, workbreakdown structures, etc. The second “control procedure” (and perhaps the most important) is the willingness and ability of project team members to give feedback to each other regarding performance. Again, trust among the project team members makes the feedback process easier and more effective. Without a high level of trust, project personnel are often reluctant to give negative or constructive feedback to fellow team members.
没有什么比在一个团队里没有人信任其他人更糟糕的了。这种情况会导致耍小聪明，因为你不想让自己的话在脸上反弹。
第二，团队成员的感觉越强，团队成员之间的信息交流（流动）越好，团队就越有可能制定有效的决策过程。原因是，团队成员觉得致力于项目，他们觉得自由分享他们的信息，并制定有效的解决问题的方法。第三，团队有可能制定更有效的项目控制程序。项目控制程序可分为两个基本领域。第一种是传统上用于监控项目绩效的定量控制程序，例如PERT/CPM、网络、工作分解结构等。第二个“控制程序”（也许也是最重要的一个）是项目团队成员之间就绩效相互反馈的意愿和能力。再次，项目团队成员之间的信任使反馈过程更容易和更有效。如果没有高度的信任，项目人员通常不愿意给其他团队成员提供消极的或建设性的反馈。
Team Building As An On-Going Process 团队建设是一个持续的过程
While we have directed considerable attention toward the role of team building in the critical early phases of a project, it is a never-ending process. The project manager is continually monitoring team functioning and performance to see what corrective action may be needed to prevent or correct various team problems. We’ve found several barometers to be good clues of potential team dysfunctioning. First, noticeable changes in performance levels for the team and/or for individual team members should always be followed up. Such changes can be symptomatic of more serious problems, e.g., conflict, lack of work integration, ***munication problems and unclear objectives. Second, the project leader amd team members want to be aware of the changing energy levels of team members. This, too, may signal more serious problems or that the team is tired and stressed. Sometimes changing the work pace, taking time off, or selling near-term, more easily reached targets can serve as a means to reenergize team members. More serious cases, however, can call for more drasric action, e.g., reappraising project objectives and/or the means to achieve them. Third, verbal and nonverbal clues from team members may be a source of information on team functioning. It is important to hear the needs and concerns of team members (verbal clues) and to observe how they act in carrying out their responsibilities (nonverbal clues). Finally, detrimental behavior of one team member toward another can be a signal that a problem within the team warrants attention.
虽然我们在项目的关键早期阶段对团队建设的作用给予了相当大的关注，但这是一个永无止境的过程。项目经理持续监控团队的运作和绩效，以确定需要采取哪些纠正措施来防止或纠正各种团队问题。我们已经发现了几个晴雨表是很好的线索，潜在的团队失调。首先，应始终跟踪团队和/或团队成员个人业绩水平的明显变化。这种变化可能是更严重问题的征兆，例如冲突、缺乏工作整合、沟通问题和目标不明确。第二，项目负责人和团队成员要意识到团队成员不断变化的能量水平。这也可能预示着更严重的问题，或者团队已经疲惫不堪，压力很大。有时候，改变工作节奏，休息一段时间，或销售短期的，更容易达到的目标，可以作为一种手段，以重新激励团队成员。然而，更严重的情况可能要求采取更严厉的行动，例如，重新评估项目目标和/或实现这些目标的手段。第三，来自团队成员的语言和非语言线索可能是团队运作的信息来源。倾听团队成员的需求和关注点（语言线索），观察他们在履行职责时的行为（非语言线索）是很重要的。最后，一个团队成员对另一个成员的有害行为可能是一个信号，表明团队中存在值得关注的问题。
We highly re***mend that project leaders hold regular team building meetings to evaluate overall team performance and deal with team functioning problems.
The focus of these meetings can be directed toward “what are we doing well as a team” and “what areas need our team’s attention?” This approach often brings positive surprises in that the total team will be informed on progress in diverse project areas, e.g., a breakthrough in technology development, a subsystem schedule met ahead of the original target, or a positive change in the client’s behavior toward the project. After the positive issues have been discussed, attention should be devoted toward “areas needing team attention.” The purpose of this part of the review session is to focus on actual or potential problem areas. The meeting leader should ask each team member for his observations on these issues. Then, an open discussion should be held to ascertain how significant the problems really are. Assumptions should, of course, be separated from the facts of each situation. Next, assignments should be agreed upon on how best to handle these problems. Finally, a plan for problem follow-up should be developed. The process should result in better overall performance and promote a feeling of team participation and high morale.
Over the life of a project, the problems encountered by the project team are likely to change and as old problems are identified and solved, new ones will emerge. We re***mend that a high degree of effort be focused on problem avoidance in the entire process.
我们强烈建议项目负责人定期召开团队建设会议，以评估团队的整体表现，并处理团队运作中出现的问题。
这些会议的焦点可以指向“作为一个团队，我们在哪些方面做得很好”和“哪些方面需要我们团队的关注？”“ 这种方法通常会带来积极的惊喜，因为整个团队将被告知不同项目领域的进展情况，例如，技术开发的突破，子系统进度比原来的目标提前完成，或者客户对项目行为的积极变化。在讨论了积极的问题之后，应该把注意力放在”需要团队关注的领域。“审查会议的这一部分的目的是集中在实际的或潜在的问题领域。会议主持人应该询问每个小组成员对这些问题的看法。然后，应该举行一次公开的讨论，以确定这些问题到底有多重要。当然，假设应该与每种情况的事实分开。其次，应商定如何最好地处理这些问题的任务。最后，应制定问题后续行动计划。这一过程应导致更好的整体绩效，并促进团队参与感和高昂的士气。
在项目的整个生命周期中，项目团队遇到的问题可能会发生变化，随着旧问题的识别和解决，新的问题又会出现。我们建议在整个过程中高度关注问题的避免。
Team Building With Other Departments A Case Study 与其他部门的团队建设案例分析
A variation of the team-building approach o***urs when two separate departments or work units are dependent upon each other for support but have intense conflicts which slow or even stop intradepartmental coordination attempts. Consider the following situation which recently o***urred in a division of a large, high technology ***pany. One of the authors served as a consultant to the firm.
当两个独立的部门或工作单位相互依赖，相互提供支助，但发生激烈冲突，减缓甚至停止部门内的协调努力时，就出现了一种不同的团队建设办法。考虑以下情况，最近发生在一家大型高科技公司的一个部门。作者之一担任该公司的顾问。
The case involved an R&D group and a marketing-directed project team. R&D’s role was to develop new technology and support the project team in its new product developments efforts. Over a period of several months, relationships between the two groups deteriorated to such a level that the division manager decided that an intervention into the situation was critical. One of the authors entered the picture at this point. After reviewing several problems with the division manager, a re***mendation was made to take both groups to a “neutral” site for a two-day meeting. The R&D manager and the project leader fully concurred with this decision. The meeting opened with a talk by the division manager on the overall status of the division, the role and importance of R&D, and the new product project team in effectively integrating their efforts. The division manager left the meeting after the first short coffee break.
After reconvening the R&D and the project team members, the consultant asked each group to go to nearby conference rooms and clearly establish how they perceived the other group. These perceptions were to be limited to short statements and a general agreement reached on their validity. The consultant noted that if 50 pecent or more of the members of a group believed that a statement was an a***urate reflection of the other group’s behavior, then it would constitute a general agreement. ***plaints or perceptions about personalities were not allowed. The intent here was to keep the two teams focused on detrimental behaviors rather than specific individuals.
After several hours the two groups were reassembled and each group was asked to give their perceptions of the other. An abbreviated version of the results is presented in Table 2. This process did produce an o***asional emotional outburst but was handled by the consultant stressing that these were perceptions and part of an overall problem-solving process.
该案件涉及一个研发小组和一个以市场为导向的项目小组。研发部门的作用是开发新技术，并支持项目小组的新产品开发工作。在几个月的时间里，两个小组之间的关系恶化到如此地步，以至于部门经理决定对这种情况进行干预是至关重要的。在这一点上，作者之一进入了画面。在与部门经理讨论了几个问题后，建议将两个小组带到一个“中立”的地点，举行为期两天的会议。研发部经理和项目负责人完全同意这一决定。会议开始时，事业部经理就事业部的整体状况、研发的作用和重要性、新产品项目团队的有效整合等进行了讲话。部门经理在第一次短暂的喝咖啡休息后离开了会议室。
在重新召集研发和项目团队成员后，顾问要求每个小组到附近的会议室，清楚地确定他们对另一组的看法。这些看法应限于简短的发言，并就其有效性达成普遍一致意见。这位顾问指出，如果一个小组中有50%或更多的成员认为一项声明准确地反映了另一个小组的行为，那么它就构成了一个普遍的一致意见。对人格的抱怨或看法是不允许的。这样做的目的是让两个团队专注于有害的行为，而不是特定的个人。
几个小时后，两组人被重新集合起来，每一组都被要求给出他们对另一组的看法。结果的缩略版见表2。这一过程偶尔会产生情绪爆发，但由顾问处理，强调这些都是看法，是整体解决问题过程的一部分。
Table 2 Team Perceptions Regarding Each Other’s Behaviors: R&D vs New Product Project Team
表2研发团队与新产品项目团队对彼此行为的看法
Upon ***pletion of the “mirroring” process, each group had a chance to respond to the perceptions of the other group. This proved helpful in cooling down emotions.
The next morning, the two groups were reassembled and given this assignment: “What Can We Do Together to Solve the Problems We’ve Identified.” The two teams were again asked to retire to their separate conference rooms to work on the assignment. After a couple of hours, the groups were brought together again to see what kind of suggestions had been developed and if an agreement could be reached. The results of this phase are presented in Table 3. Overall, the session was a su***ess and it set the tone for regular meetings between the R&D group and the New Product Project Team. In this situation, the “team” was the two interdependent groups working together.
“镜像”过程完成后，每一组都有机会对另一组的看法做出反应。事实证明，这有助于冷却情绪。
第二天早上，这两组人重新集合，接受了这样的任务：“我们可以一起做些什么来解决我们发现的问题？”两个小组再次被要求退到各自的会议室完成任务。几个小时后，各小组再次聚集在一起，看看大家提出了什么样的建议，以及是否能达成一致意见。这一阶段的结果见表3。总的来说，这次会议是成功的，它为研发团队和新产品项目团队之间的定期会议定下了基调。在这种情况下，“团队”是两个相互依赖的群体一起工作。
Conclusions
Effective team building can be a critical determinant of project su***ess. While the process of team building can entail frustrations and energy on the part of all concerned, the rewards can be great.
Social scientists generally agree that there are several indicators of effective and ineffective teams. At any point in the life of a team, the project manager should be aware of certain effectiveness/ineffectiveness indicators. Several such indicators appear in Table 4.
As we progress through the 1980’s, we anticipate important developments in team building. These developments should not only lead to higher performance levels but also to increased morale. We have noted on many o***asions that the well developed, highly ***mitted team can withstand almost any kind of adversity. It is the poorly developed team which is likely to run aground when storms appear.
有效的团队建设是项目成功的关键决定因素。虽然团队建设的过程中可能会涉及到所有相关人员的挫折和精力，但回报可能是巨大的。
社会科学家普遍认为，有几个指标有效和无效的团队。在团队生命周期的任何时候，项目经理都应该意识到某些有效性/无效性指标。几个这样的指标出现在表4中。
随着我们在20世纪80年代的进步，我们预期在团队建设方面会有重要的发展。这些发展不仅应导致更高的业绩水平，而且还应提高士气。我们多次注意到，一个发展良好、高度投入的团队几乎可以承受任何逆境。当风暴出现时，这支发展不佳的队伍很可能搁浅。
